Appendix B — References

Abbott, B. (2006). Definite and indefinite. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 392–399). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01089-0
Ackerman, L. (2018a). Processing singular ”they” with generic and specific antecedents [Poster]. 24th Architectures and Mechanisms of Language Processing. https://osf.io/ztrsy/
Ackerman, L. (2018b). Toward an understanding of how nonbinary pronouns are learned and processed [Poster]. Socially Situated Language Processing. https://osf.io/zacp7/
Ackerman, L. (2019). Syntactic and cognitive issues in investigating gendered coreference. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 4(1), 117. https://doi.org/10.5334/gjgl.721
Ackerman, L. (2020). Social exposure to gender-variance influences the real-time processing of pronouns [Poster]. 33rd Annual CUNY Human Sentence Processing Conference. https://osf.io/98mhp/
Ackerman, L., Riches, N., & Wallenberg, J. (2017). The ambiguity of natural gender in coreference dependency formation [Poster]. 23rd Architectures and Mechanisms of Language Processing. https://osf.io/vwj8p/
Adamsky, C. (1981). Changes in pronominal usage in a classroom situation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5(5), 773–779. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1981.tb01101.x
Ahn, B., & Conrod, K. (2022). Three ways to rate ”themself” [Conference Talk]. 35th Annual Conference on Human Sentence Processing.
Allopenna, P. D., Magnuson, J. S., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1998). Tracking the time course of spoken word recognition using eye movements: Evidence for continuous mapping models. Journal of Memory and Language, 38(38), 419–439. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1997.2558
Alter, A. L., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2009). Uniting the tribes of fluency to form a metacognitive nation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13(3), 219–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309341564
American Civil Liberties Union. (2023). Mapping attacks on LGBTQ rights in U.S. state legislatures. https://web.archive.org/web/20230529140006/https://www.aclu.org/legislative-attacks-on-lgbtq-rights
Ansara, Y. G., & Hegarty, P. (2014). Methodologies of misgendering: Recommendations for reducing cisgenderism in psychological research. Feminism & Psychology, 24(2), 259–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353514526217
Antón-Méndez, I. (2010). Gender bender: Gender errors in L2 pronoun production. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 39(2), 119–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-009-9129-z
Antón-Méndez, I., Nicol, J. L., & Garrett, M. F. (2002). The relation between gender and number agreement processing. Syntax, 5(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9612.00045
Arechar, A. A., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Turking in the time of COVID. Behavior Research Methods, 53(6), 2591–2595. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01588-4
Ariel, M. (2006). Accessibility theory. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 15–18). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04291-7
Arnold, J. E., Brown-Schmidt, S., & Trueswell, J. (2007). Children’s use of gender and order-of-mention during pronoun comprehension. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22(4), 527–565. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960600845950
Arnold, J. E., Eisenband, J. G., Brown-Schmidt, S., & Trueswell, J. C. (2000). The rapid use of gender information: Evidence of the time course of pronoun resolution from eyetracking. Cognition, 76(1), B13–B26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00073-1
Arnold, J. E., Marquez, A., Li, J., & Franck, G. (2022). Does nonbinary ”they” inherit the binary pronoun production system? Glossa Psycholinguistics, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.5070/G601183
Arnold, J. E., Mayo, H. C., & Dong, L. (2021). My pronouns are they/them: Talking about pronouns changes how pronouns are understood. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-021-01905-0
Arnold, J. E., Payst, N., Kakoki, E., & Wang, L. (2023). Online comprehension of nonbinary ”they” is easier with supporting linguistic context [Poster]. 36th Annual Conference on Human Sentence Processing.
Arnold, J. E., Venkatesh, R., Vig, Z. A., & Scott, A. (2022). University students produce nonbinary singular ”they” almost as well as ”he” or ”she” [Conference Talk]. 35th Annual Conference on Human Sentence Processing.
Arnold, J. E., & Zerkle, S. A. (2019). Why do people produce pronouns? Pragmatic selection vs. Rational models. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 34(9), 1152–1175. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2019.1636103
Austen, J. (1815). Emma.
Baayen, R. H., Davidson, D. J., & Bates, D. M. (2008). Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59(4), 390–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.12.005
Baldwin, A., Dodge, B., Schick, V. R., Light, B., Scharrs, P. W., Herbenick, D., & Fortenberry, J. D. (2018). Transgender and genderqueer individuals’ experiences with health care providers: What’s working, what’s not, and where do we go from here? Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 29(4), 1300–1318. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2018.0097
Balhorn, M. (2004). The rise of epicene ”they”. Journal of English Linguistics, 32(2), 79–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0075424204265824
Banaji, M. R., & Hardin, C. D. (1996). Automatic stereotyping. Psychological Science, 7(3), 136–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00346.x
Barbee, H., & Schrock, D. (2019). Un/gendering social selves: How nonbinary people navigate and experience a binarily gendered world. Sociological Forum, 34(3), 572–593. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12517
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., & Tily, H. J. (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68(3), 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Baskervill, W. M., & Sewell, J. W. (1895). An English grammar. Project Gutenburg.
Bates, D. M., Mächler, M., Bolker, B. M., & Walker, S. C. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
Baum, J., Brill, S., Brown, J., Delpercio, A., Kahn, E., Kenney, L., & Nicoll, A. (2012). Supporting and caring for our gender-expansive youth: Lessons from the Human Rights Campaign’s youth survey. Human Rights Campaign Foundation & Gender Spectrum. https://web.archive.org/web/20230323072407/https://assets2.hrc.org/files/assets/resources/Gender-expansive-youth-report-final.pdf
Bjorkman, B. M. (2017). Singular ”they” and the syntactic representation of gender in English. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 2(1), 80. https://doi.org/10.5334/gjgl.374
Blaubergs, M. S. (1980). An analysis of classic arguments against changing sexist language. Women’s Studies International Quarterly, 3(2-3), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-0685(80)92071-0
Bockting, W. O., Miner, M. H., Swinburne Romine, R. E., Hamilton, A., & Coleman, E. (2013). Stigma, mental health, and resilience on an online sample of the US transgender population. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 943–951. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301241
Bodine, A. (1975). Androcentrism in prescriptive grammar: Singular ”they”, sex-indefinite ”he”, and ”he or she”. Language in Society, 4(2), 129–146. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404500004607
Bradley, E. D. (2020). The influence of linguistic and social attitudes on grammaticality judgments of singular ”they”. Language Sciences, 78, 101272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2020.101272
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usages. Cambridge University Press.
Brown-Schmidt, S., Naveiras, M., De Boeck, P., & Cho, S.-J. (2020). Statistical modeling of intensive categorical time-series eye-tracking data using dynamic generalized linear mixed-effect models with crossed random effects. In Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 73, pp. 1–31). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.plm.2020.06.004
Brown-Schmidt, S., & Toscano, J. C. (2017). Gradient acoustic information induces long-lasting referential uncertainty in short discourses. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 32(10), 1211–1228. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2017.1325508
Buchanan, N. T., Perez, M., Prinstein, M. J., & Thurston, I. B. (2021). Upending racism in psychological science: Strategies to change how science is conducted, reported, reviewed, and disseminated. American Psychologist, 76(7), 1097–1112. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000905
Budge, S. L., Rossman, H. K., & Howard, K. A. S. (2014). Coping and psychological distress among genderqueer individuals: The moderating effect of social support. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 8(1), 95–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2014.853641
Burgwal, A., Gvianishvili, N., Hård, V., Kata, J., Garcia Nieto, I., Orre, C., Smiley, A., Vidic, J., & Motmans, J. (2019). Health disparities between binary and non-binary trans people: A community-driven survey. International Journal of Transgenderism, 20(2–3), 218–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2019.1629370
Bürkner, P.-C. (2017). brms: An R package for Bayesian multilevel models using Stan. Journal of Statistical Software, 80(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v080.i01
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676
Butler, C., Joiner, R., Bradley, R., Bowles, M., Bowes, A., Russell, C., & Roberts, V. (2019). Self-harm prevalence and ideation in a community sample of cis, trans and other youth. International Journal of Transgenderism, 20(4), 447–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2019.1614130
Cacciari, C., & Padovani, R. (2007). Further evidence of gender stereotype priming in language: Semantic facilitation and inhibition in Italian role nouns. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28(2), 277–293. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0142716407070142
Cameron, J. J., & Stinson, D. A. (2019). Gender (mis)measurement: Guidelines for respecting gender diversity in psychological research. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(11). https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12506
Camilliere, S., Izes, A., Leventhal, O., & Grodner, D. J. (2021). ”They” is changing: Pragmatic and grammatical factors that license singular ”they”. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 43.
Carlson, G. (2006). Generic reference. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 14–18). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00274-1
Carpenter, P. A., & Just, M. A. (1983). What your eyes do while your mind is reading. In Eye movements in reading (pp. 275–307). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-583680-7.50022-9
Carreiras, M., Garnham, A., Oakhill, J., & Cain, K. (1996). The use of stereotypical gender information in constructing a mental model: Evidence from English and Spanish. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49A(3), 639–664. https://doi.org/10.1080/713755647
Cassian. (2021). Gender census 2021: Worldwide report [Data Set]. https://web.archive.org/web/20220828234326/https://www.gendercensus.com/results/2021-worldwide/
Cassian. (2022). Gender census 2022: Worldwide report [Data Set]. https://web.archive.org/web/20220827231434/https://www.gendercensus.com/results/2022-worldwide/
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). 2014 Behavioral risk factor surveillance system survey [Data Set]. https://www.cdc.gov/brfss/annual_data/annual_2014.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). 2015 Behavioral risk factor surveillance system survey [Data Set]. https://www.cdc.gov/brfss/annual_data/annual_2015.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). 2019 Combined youth risk behavior surveillance system high school datasets [Data Set]. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/data.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). 2021 Behavioral risk factor surveillance system survey [Data Set]. https://www.cdc.gov/brfss/annual_data/annual_2021.html
Chandler, J., Rosenzweig, C., Moss, A. J., Robinson, J., & Litman, L. (2019). Online panels in social science research: Expanding sampling methods beyond Mechanical Turk. Behavior Research Methods, 51(5), 2022–2038. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01273-7
Chang, T. K., & Chung, Y. B. (2015). Transgender microaggressions: Complexity of the heterogeneity of transgender identities. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 9(3), 217–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2015.1068146
Chen, P., Leventhal, O., Camilliere, S., Blain, K., Izes, A., & Grodner, D. (2023). Singular ”they” in transition: ERP evidence [Poster]. 36th Annual Conference on Human Sentence Processing.
Cheung, A. S., Leemaqz, S. Y., Wong, J. W. P., Chew, D., Ooi, O., Cundill, P., Silberstein, N., Locke, P., Zwickl, S., Grayson, R., Zajac, J. D., & Pang, K. C. (2020). Non-binary and binary gender identity in Australian trans and gender diverse individuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(7), 2673–2681. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01689-9
Cho, S.-J., Brown-Schmidt, S., Boeck, P. D., & Shen, J. (2020). Modeling intensive polytomous time-series eye-tracking data: A dynamic tree-based item response model. Psychometrika, 85(1), 154–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-020-09694-6
Cho, S.-J., Brown-Schmidt, S., & Lee, W. (2018). Autoregressive generalized linear mixed effect models with crossed random effects: An application to intensive binary time series eye-tracking data. Psychometrika, 83(3), 751–771. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-018-9604-2
Chodzen, G., Hidalgo, M. A., Chen, D., & Garofalo, R. (2019). Minority stress factors associated with depression and anxiety among transgender and gender-nonconforming youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 467–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.07.006
Clark, B. A., Veale, J. F., Townsend, M., Frohard-Dourlent, H., & Saewyc, E. (2018). Non-binary youth: Access to gender-affirming primary health care. International Journal of Transgenderism, 19(2), 158–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2017.1394954
Conrod, K. (2019a). Names before pronouns: Variation in pronominal reference and gender. Proceedings of the Northwest Linguistics Conference.
Conrod, K. (2019b). Pronouns raising and emerging (Publication No. 22621294) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Washington]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
Corbett, G. G. (2013a). Number of genders. In M. S. Dryer & M. Haspelmath (Eds.), The world atlas of language structures online. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. https://web.archive.org/web/20230319221121/https://wals.info/chapter/30
Corbett, G. G. (2013b). Sex-based and non-sex-based gender systems. In M. S. Dryer & M. Haspelmath (Eds.), The world atlas of language structures online. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. https://web.archive.org/web/20221203192216/https://wals.info/chapter/31
Cordoba, S. (2020). Exploring non-binary genders: Language and identity (Publication No. 29424421) [Doctoral dissertation, De Montfort University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
Cornish, F. (2006). Discourse anaphora. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 631–638). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04290-5
Crissman, H. P., Berger, M. B., Graham, L. F., & Dalton, V. K. (2017). Transgender demographics: A household probability sample of US adults, 2014. AJPH Transgender Health, 107(2), 213–215. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303571
Cronbach, L. J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 12(11), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043943
Cronin, C., & Jreisat, S. (1995). Effects of modeling on the use of nonsexist language among high school freshpersons and seniors. Sex Roles, 33(11-12), 819–830. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544781
Cruz, T. M. (2014). Assessing access to care for transgender and gender nonconforming people: A consideration of diversity in combating discrimination. Social Science & Medicine, 110, 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.032
Cunnings, I., Fotiadou, G., & Tsimpli, I. (2017). Anaphora resolution and reanalysis during L2 sentence processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39(4), 621–652. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263116000292
DeDe, G., & Knilans, J. (2016). Language comprehension in aging. In H. H. Wright (Ed.), Cognition, language and aging (pp. 107–133). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/z.200.05ded
Doherty, A., & Conklin, K. (2017). How gender-expectancy affects the processing of ”them”. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 70(4), 718–735. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1154582
Douglas, B. D., Ewell, P. J., & Brauer, M. (2023). Data quality in online human-subjects research: Comparisons between MTurk, Prolific, CloudResearch, Qualtrics, and SONA. PLOS ONE, 18(3), e0279720. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279720
Dragojevic, M. (2020). Extending the fluency principle: Factors that increase listeners’ processing fluency positively bias their language attitudes. Communication Monographs, 87(2), 158–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2019.1663543
Dragojevic, M., & Giles, H. (2016). I don’t like you because you’re hard to understand: The role of processing fluency in the language attitudes process. Human Communication Research, 42(3), 396–420. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12079
Dragojevic, M., Giles, H., Beck, A.-C., & Tatum, N. T. (2017). The fluency principle: Why foreign accent strength negatively biases language attitudes. Communication Monographs, 84(3), 385–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2017.1322213
Drucker, Z. (2019). The gender spectrum collection: Stock photos beyond the binary [Photographs]. Vice. https://web.archive.org/web/20210209092233/https://genderphotos.vice.com/
Du Bois, J. W. (2007). The stance triangle. In R. Englebretson (Ed.), Stancetaking in discourse: Subjectivity, evaluation, interaction (pp. 139–182). https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.164.07du
Duffy, S. A., & Keir, J. A. (2004). Violating stereotypes: Eye movements and comprehension processes when text conflicts with world knowledge. Memory & Cognition, 32(4), 551–559. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195846
Ehrlich, S., & King, R. (1992). Gender-based language reform and the social construction of meaning. Discourse & Society, 3(2), 151–166.
Eisenberg, M. E., Gower, A. L., McMorris, B. J., Rider, G. N., Shea, G., & Coleman, E. (2017). Risk and protective factors in the lives of transgender/gender nonconforming adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61(4), 521–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.04.014
Fagot, B. I., & Leinbach, M. D. (1993). Gender-role development in young children: From discrimination to labeling. Developmental Review, 13(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.1993.1009
Falandays, J. B., Brown-Schmidt, S., & Toscano, J. C. (2020). Long-lasting gradient activation of referents during spoken language processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 112, 104088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2020.104088
Farkas, D. (2006). Specificity. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 633–635). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04332-7
Flanagan, A. M., & Todd-Mancillas, W. R. (1982). Teaching inclusive generic pronoun usage: The effectiveness of an authority innovation-decision approach versus an optional innovation-decision approach. Communication Education, 31, 275–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634528209384696
Flowers, A. (2015). Unisex names data [Data Set]. FiveThirtyEight. https://github.com/fivethirtyeight/data/tree/master/unisex-names
Fodor, J. D., & Sag, I. A. (1982). Referential and quantificational indefinites. Linguistics and Philosophy, 5(3), 355–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00351459
Foertsch, J., & Gernsbacher, M. A. (1997). Is singular ”they” a cognitively efficient substitute for generic ”he”? Psychological Science, 8(2), 106–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00691.x
Friederici, A. D. (2002). Towards a neural basis of auditory sentence processing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(2), 78–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01839-8
Friedman, E. J. (2014). Cisgenderism in gender attributions: The ways in which social, cognitive, and individuals factors predict misgendering (Publication No. 3623701) [Doctoral dissertation, The City University of New York]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
Galupo, M. P., Pulice-Farrow, L., & Lindley, L. (2020). ”Every time I get gendered male, I feel a pain in my chest”: Understanding the social context for gender dysphoria. Stigma and Health, 5(2), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000189
Garnham, A. (2001). A mental models theory of understanding anaphora. In Mental models and the interpretation of anaphora. Taylor & Francis.
Garnham, A., & Cowles, H. W. (2006). Reference: Psycholinguistic approach. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 427–433). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00801-4
Garnham, A., Oakhill, J., & Reynolds, D. (2002). Are inferences from stereotyped role names to characters’ gender made elaboratively? Memory & Cognition, 30(3), 439–446. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194944
Gernsbacher, M. A. (1989). Mechanisms that improve referential access. Cognition, 32(2), 99–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(89)90001-2
GLAAD. (2020). GLAAD media reference guide—transgender. https://web.archive.org/web/20200522040917/https://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender
GLSEN. (2020). Pronouns: A guide from GLSEN. http://web.archive.org/web/20200423153329/https://www.glsen.org/activity/pronouns-guide-glsen
Goldberg, A. E., Kuvalanka, K., & Dickey, L. (2019). Transgender graduate students’ experiences in higher education: A mixed-methods exploratory study. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 12(1), 38–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000074
Gordon, P. C., Grosz, B. J., & Gilliom, L. A. (1993). Pronouns, names, and the centering of attention in discourse. Cognitive Science, 17(3), 311–347. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1703_1
Grant, J. M., Mottet, L. A., Tanis, J., Harrison, J., Herman, J. L., & Keisling, M. (2011). Injustice at every turn: A report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. National Center for Transgender Equality & National Gay; Lesbian Task Force. https://web.archive.org/web/20230127030240/https://transequality.org/issues/resources/national-transgender-discrimination-survey-full-report
Green, P., & MacLeod, C. J. (2016). simr: An R package for power analysis of generalized linear mixed models by simulation. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 7(4), 493–498. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12504
Greene, S. B., McKoon, G., & Ratcliff, R. (1992). Pronoun resolution and discourse models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(2), 266–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.18.2.266
Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In Speech acts (pp. 41–58). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_003
Grosz, B. J., & Sidner, C. L. (1986). Attention, intentions, and the structure of discourse. Computational Linguistics, 12(3), 175–204.
Grüter, T., Lew-Williams, C., & Fernald, A. (2012). Grammatical gender in L2: A production or a real-time processing problem? Second Language Research, 28(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658312437990
Gunn, H. A. (2020). The experience of misgendering among trans and gender diverse people (Publication No. 2447222123) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts Boston]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
Gurley, A. (2021, August 12). ”The crown” star Emma Corrin got candid about their ”scary” decision to come out as queer. Buzzfeed. https://web.archive.org/web/20210813041253/https://www.buzzfeed.com/alexgurley/emma-corrin-queer-journey%0A
Gygax, P., Elmiger, D., Zufferey, S., Garnham, A., Sczesny, S., Von Stockhausen, L., Braun, F., & Oakhill, J. (2019). A language index of grammatical gender dimensions to study the impact of grammatical gender on the way we perceive women and men. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1604. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01604
Hagoort, P., Brown, C., & Groothusen, J. (1993). The syntactic positive shift (SPS) as an ERP measure of syntactic processing. Language and Cognitive Processes, 8(4), 439–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690969308407585
Hallett, P. E. (1986). Eye movement. In K. Buff, L. Kaufman, & J. P. Thomas (Eds.), Handbook of perception and human performance (Vol. 1, pp. 10.1–10.112). Wiley.
Harrison, J., Grant, J., & Herman, J. L. (2012). A gender not listed here: Genderqueers, gender rebels, and otherwise in the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. LGBTQ Policy Journal at the Harvard Kennedy School, 2(1), 13. https://web.archive.org/web/20210719001058/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2zj46213
H.B. 1346. (2023). 123rd Indiana General Assembly. http://web.archive.org/web/20230329111024/https://iga.in.gov/legislative/2023/bills/house/1346
Hedge, C., Powell, G., & Sumner, P. (2017). The reliability paradox: Why robust cognitive tasks do not produce reliable individual differences. Behavior Research Methods, 50(3), 1166–1186. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0935-1
Hekanaho, L. (2020). Generic and nonbinary pronouns: Usage, acceptability and attitudes [Doctoral dissertation, University of Helsinki]. http://hdl.handle.net/10138/321581
Henderson, J. M. (2013). Eye movements. In D. Reisberg (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of cognitive psychology (pp. 69–82). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376746.013.0005
Herman, J. L., Flores, A. R., & O’Neill, K. K. (2022). How many adults and youth identify as transgender in the United States? UCLA School of Law. https://web.archive.org/web/20230430114921/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/trans-adults-united-states/
Hernandez, E. E. (2020). Pronouns, prescriptivism, and prejudice: Attitudes toward the singular ”they,” prescriptive grammar, and nonbinary transgender people [Master's thesis, Purdue University]. https://doi.org/10.25394/PGS.12231095.v1
Howe, B. G. (2019). The impact of microaggressions on transgender identity defense related emotions (TIDE) and the emotional status, desire for social engagement, and participation in suicide-related behaviors in transgender people (Publication No. 13899488) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
Huang, Y. (2006). Coreference: Identity and similarity. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 203–205). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00992-5
Human Rights Campaign. (2023, February 15). Human Rights Campaign working to defeat 340 anti-LGBTQ+ bills at state level already, 150 of which target transgender people – highest number on record. https://web.archive.org/web/20230401063456/https://www.hrc.org/press-releases/human-rights-campaign-working-to-defeat-340-anti-lgbtq-bills-at-state-level-already-150-of-which-target-transgender-people-highest-number-on-record
Humane Society. (2020). Why you should spay/neuter your pet. http://web.archive.org/web/20201112020818/https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/why-you-should-spayneuter-your-pet
Jacobson, M. B., & Insko, W. R. (1985). Use of nonsexist pronouns as a function of one’s feminist orientation. Sex Roles, 13(1-2), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287456
James, S. E., Herman, J. L., Rankin, S., Keisling, M., Mottet, L. A., & Anafi, M. (2016). The report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. National Center for Transgender Equality. https://web.archive.org/web/20230519030106/https://ustranssurvey.org/reports/#2015report
Jescheniak, J. D., & Levelt, W. J. M. (1994). Word frequency effects in speech production: Retrieval of syntactic information and of phonological form. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20(4), 824–843. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.824
Jescheniak, J. D., Schriefers, H., & Lemhöfer, K. (2014). Selection of freestanding and bound gender-marking morphemes in speech production: A review. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 29(6), 684–694. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690965.2012.654645
Johnson, A. (2019). Read between the lines: Teaching and learning while nonbinary trans. In G. Beemyn (Ed.), Trans people in higher education (pp. 27–34). SUNY Press.
Johnson, I. R., Pietri, E. S., Buck, D. M., & Daas, R. (2021). What’s in a pronoun: Exploring gender pronouns as an organizational identity-safety cue among sexual and gender minorities. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104194
Jones, R. P., Cox, D., Fisch-Friedman, M., & Vandermaas-Peeler, A. (2018). Diversity, division, discrimination: The state of young America. Public Religion Research Institute. https://web.archive.org/web/20180111030007/https://www.prri.org/research/mtv-culture-and-religion/
Jones, R. P., Jackson, N., Najle, M., Bola, O., & Greenberg, D. (2019). America’s growing support for transgender rights. https://web.archive.org/web/20190611113350/https://www.prri.org/research/americas-growing-support-for-transgender-rights/
Joshi, A. K., Prasad, R., & Miltsakaki, E. (2006). Anaphora resolution: Centering theory approach. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 223–230). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04366-2
Kaan, E., Harris, A., Gibson, E., & Holcomb, P. (2000). The P600 as an index of syntactic integration difficulty. Language and Cognitive Processes, 15(2), 159–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/016909600386084
Kaiser, E., & Post, C. (2023). Production of singular ”they”: Social biases and gender features on pronouns [Poster]. 36th Annual Conference on Human Sentence Processing.
Kaiser, E., & Trueswell, J. C. (2011). Investigating the interpretation of pronouns and demonstratives in Finnish: Going beyond salience. In E. Gibson & N. J. Pearlmutter (Eds.), The processing and acquisition of reference. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262015127.003.0013
Kattari, S. K., Atteberry-Ash, B., Kinney, M. K., Walls, N. E., & Kattari, L. (2019). One size does not fit all: Differential transgender health experiences. Social Work in Health Care, 58(9), 899–917. https://doi.org/10.1080/00981389.2019.1677279
Kattari, S. K., Kattari, L., Johnson, I., Lacombe-Duncan, A., & Misiolek, B. A. (2020). Differential experiences of mental health among trans/gender diverse adults in Michigan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186805
Kattari, S. K., O, A. A., & Kattari, L. (2018). Development and validation of the transgender inclusive behavior scale (TIBS). Journal of Homosexuality, 65(2), 181–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1314160
Kehler, A., & Rohde, H. (2013). A probabilistic reconciliation of coherence-driven and centering-driven theories of pronoun interpretation. Theoretical Linguistics, 39(1-2), 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1515/tl-2013-0001
Kennison, S. M., Fernandez, E. C., & Bowers, J. M. (2009). Processing differences for anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns: Implications for theories of discourse processing. Discourse Processes, 46(1), 25–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/01638530802359145
Kennison, S. M., & Trofe, J. L. (2003). Comprehending pronouns: A role for word-specific gender stereotype information. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 23(3), 355–378. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023599719948
Keuroghlian, A. S., Reisner, S. L., White, J. M., & Weiss, R. D. (2015). Substance use and treatment of substance use disorders in a community sample of transgender adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 152, 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.04.008
Kidd, K. M., Sequeira, G. M., Douglas, C., Paglisotti, T., Inwards-Breland, D. J., Miller, E., & Coulter, R. W. S. (2021). Prevalence of gender-diverse youth in an urban school district. Pediatrics, 147(6), e2020049823. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-049823
Koeser, S., Kuhn, E. A., & Sczesny, S. (2015). Just reading? How gender-fair language triggers readers’ use of gender-fair forms. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 34(3), 343–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X14561119
Koeser, S., & Sczesny, S. (2014). Promoting gender-fair language: The impact of arguments on language use, attitudes, and cognitions. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 33(5), 548–560. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X14541280
Konnelly, L., & Cowper, E. (2020). Gender diversity and morphosyntax: An account of singular ”they”. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 5(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/http://doi.org/10.5334/gjgl.1000
Kramer, A., Boland, J., & Queen, R. (2021). Familiarity is a better predictor than age for specific ”they” production, but explicit examples are even better [Conference Talk]. 95th Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America.
Kreiner, H., Sturt, P., & Garrod, S. (2008). Processing definitional and stereotypical gender in reference resolution: Evidence from eye-movements. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(2), 239–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.09.003
Kuper, L. E., Nussbaum, R., & Mustanski, B. (2012). Exploring the diversity of gender and sexual orientation identities in an online sample of transgender individuals. Journal of Sex Research, 49(2-3), 244–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.596954
Lagos, D. (2018). Looking at population health beyond ”male” and ”female”: Implications of transgender identity and gender nonconformity for population health. Demography, 55(6), 2097–2117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-018-0714-3
Lefevor, G. T., Boyd-Rogers, C. C., Sprague, B. M., & Janis, R. A. (2019). Health disparities between genderqueer, transgender, and cisgender individuals: An extension of minority stress theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 66(4), 385–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000339
Levay, K. E., Freese, J., & Druckman, J. N. (2016). The demographic and political composition of Mechanical Turk samples. SAGE Open, 6(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016636433
Levelt, W. J. M., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A. S. (1999). A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 1–75.
Liceralde, V. R. T., & Watson, D. G. (2023). Typical psycholinguistic designs require more items to detect reliable individual differences in focal linguistic effects [Poster]. 36th Annual Conference on Human Sentence Processing.
Lindley, L., & Galupo, M. P. (2020). Gender dysphoria and minority stress: Support for inclusion of gender dysphoria as a proximal stressor. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 7(3), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000439
Liversedge, S. P., & Findlay, J. M. (2000). Saccadic eye movements and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(1), 6–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01418-7
Liversedge, S. P., Paterson, K. B., & Pickering, M. J. (1998). Eye movements and measures of reading time. In Eye guidance in reading and scene perception (pp. 55–75). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008043361-5/50004-3
Lo, S., & Andrews, S. (2015). To transform or not to transform: Using generalized linear mixed models to analyse reaction time data. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1171. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01171
Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D. (2004). Children’s search for gender cues: Cognitive perspectives on gender development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(2), 67–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00276.x
Martin, C. L., Ruble, D. N., & Szkrybalo, J. (2002). Cognitive theories of early gender development. Psychological Bulletin, 128(6), 903–933. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.6.903
Martyna, W. (1980). Beyond the ”he/man” approach: The case for nonsexist language. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 5(3), 482–493. https://doi.org/10.1086/493733
McConnell-Ginet, S. (2014). Gender and its relation to sex: The myth of ”natural” gender. In G. G. Corbett (Ed.), The expression of gender (pp. 3–38). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110307337.3
McGonagill, R. (2023). Job-seekers with nonbinary gender pronouns on their resumes are less likely to be contacted by employers. Business.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20230308193858/https://www.business.com/hiring/nonbinary-discrimination-job-market-report/
McKoon, G., Gerrig, R. J., & Greene, S. B. (1996). Pronoun resolution without pronouns: Some consequences of memory-based text processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 22(4), 919–932. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.22.4.919
McLemore, K. A. (2015). Self and identity experiences with misgendering: Identity misclassification of transgender spectrum individuals. Self and Identity, 14(1), 51–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.950691
McLemore, K. A. (2018). A minority stress perspective on transgender individuals’ experiences with misgendering. Stigma and Health, 3(1), 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000070
McMinn, M. R., Lindsay, S. F., Hannum, L. E., & Troyer, P. K. (1990). Does sexist language reflect personal characteristics? Sex Roles, 23(7-8), 389–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289227
McMurray, B., Klein-Packard, J., & Tomblin, J. B. (2019). A real-time mechanism underlying lexical deficits in developmental language disorder: Between-word inhibition. Cognition, 191, 104000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.06.012
McMurray, B., Tanenhaus, M. K., & Aslin, R. N. (2009). Within-category VOT affects recovery from ”lexical” garden-paths: Evidence against phoneme-level inhibition. Journal of Memory and Language, 60(1), 65–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2008.07.002
Meerwijk, E. L., & Sevelius, J. M. (2017). Transgender population size in the United States: A meta-regression of population-based probability samples. AJPH Transgender Health, 107(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303578
Minkin, R., & Brown, A. (2021). Rising shares of U.S. adults know someone who is transgender or goes by gender-neutral pronouns. Pew Research Center. https://web.archive.org/web/20210731145136/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/07/27/rising-shares-of-u-s-adults-know-someone-who-is-transgender-or-goes-by-gender-neutral-pronouns/
Mitchell, L., MacArthur, H. J., & Blomquist, K. K. (2021). The effect of misgendering on body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint in transgender individuals: Testing a misgendering-congruence process. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 54(7), 1295–1301. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23537
Molinaro, N., Su, J. J., & Carreiras, M. (2016). Stereotypes override grammar: Social knowledge in sentence comprehension. Brain and Language, 155-156, 36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2016.03.002
Monáe, J., & Lore, D. (2022). Nevermind. In The memory librarian: And other stories of dirty computer. Harper Voyager.
Morehouse, K. N., Kurdi, B., Hakim, E., & Banaji, M. R. (2022). When a stereotype dumbfounds: Probing the nature of the surgeon = male belief. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 3, 100044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2022.100044
Morris, E. R., & Galupo, M. P. (2019). ”Attempting to dull the dysphoria”: Nonsuicidal self-injury among transgender individuals. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 6(3), 296–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000327
Nadal, K. L. (2013). Gender identity microaggressions: Experiences of transgender and gender nonconforming people. In That’s so gay! Microaggressions and the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community (pp. 80–107). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14093-005
Nadal, K. L. (2019). Measuring LGBTQ microaggressions: The sexual orientation microaggressions scale (SOMS) and the gender identity microaggressions scale (GIMS). Journal of Homosexuality, 66(10), 1404–1414. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1542206
Nadal, K. L., Davidoff, K. C., Davis, L. S., & Wong, Y. (2014). Emotional, behavioral, and cognitive reactions to microaggressions: Transgender perspectives. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1(1), 72–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000011
Nadal, K. L., Whitman, C. N., Davis, L. S., Erazo, T., & Davidoff, K. C. (2016). Microaggressions toward lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and genderqueer people: A review of the literature. Journal of Sex Research, 53(4-5), 488–508. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1142495
Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K. A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles, 59, 521–531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9458-7
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2022). Measuring sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/26424
Neenan, M. (2020, February 3). Other Voices: Matthew Neenan [Video]. Nashville Ballet. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BhPDXxB4Tg
Newcomb, M. E., Hill, R., Buehler, K., Ryan, D. T., Whitton, S. W., & Mustanski, B. (2020). High burden of mental health problems, substance use, violence, and related psychosocial factors in transgender, non-binary, and gender diverse youth and young adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 645–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01533-9
Nichols, A., Chun, E., & Almor, A. (2019). Non-binary gendered reference in LGBTQ+ English: Implications of singular ”they” for sentence processing [Poster]. 32nd Annual Conference on Human Sentence Processing.
Nieuwland, M. S. (2014). ”Who’s he?” event-related brain potentials and unbound pronouns. Journal of Memory and Language, 76, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2014.06.002
Noonan, P. (2019, July 25). What were Robespierre’s pronouns? The Wall Street Journal. https://web.archive.org/web/20210221063231/https://www.wsj.com/articles/what-were-robespierres-pronouns-11564095088
Oakhill, J., Garnham, A., & Reynolds, D. (2005). Immediate activation of stereotypical gender information. Memory & Cognition, 33(6), 972–983. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193206
OED Online. (2021). they, pron., adj., adv., and n. Oxford University Press. https://web.archive.org/web/20210628005850/https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/200700
Osterhout, L., Bersick, M., & Mclaughlin, J. (1997). Brain potentials reflect violations of gender stereotypes. Memory & Cognition, 25(3), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211283
Osterhout, L., & Holcomb, P. J. (1992). Event-related brain potentials elicited by syntactic anomaly. Journal of Memory and Language, 31(6), 785–806. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(92)90039-Z
Osterhout, L., Holcomb, P. J., & Swinney, D. A. (1994). Brain potentials elicited by garden-path sentences: Evidence of the application of verb information during parsing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20(4), 786–803. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.786
Parker, K., Graf, N., & Igielnik, R. (2019). Generation Z looks a lot like millennials on key social and political issues. Pew Research Center. https://web.archive.org/web/20210210083104/https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2019/01/17/generation-z-looks-a-lot-like-millennials-on-key-social-and-political-issues/
Parks, C., Guskin, E., & Clement, S. (2023, March 23). Most trans adults say transitioning made them more satisfied with their lives. The Washington Post. https://web.archive.org/web/20230323123428/https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2023/03/23/transgender-adults-transitioning-poll/
Parks, J. B., & Roberton, M. A. (1998). Contemporary arguments against nonsexist language: Blaubergs (1980) revisited. Sex Roles, 39(5-6), 445–461. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018827227128
Parks, J. B., & Roberton, M. A. (2004). Attitudes toward women mediate the gender effect on attitudes toward sexist language. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(3), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00140.x
Parks, J. B., & Roberton, M. A. (2008). Generation gaps in attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 27(3), 276–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X08317956
Peer, E., Rothschild, D., Gordon, G., Evernden, Z., & Damer, E. (2022). Data quality of platforms and panels for online behavioral research. Behavior Research Methods, 54(4), 1643–1662. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01694-3
Penelope, J. (1982). Power and the opposition to feminist proposals for language change. College English, 44(8), 840–848. https://doi.org/10.2307/377340
Penklis, H. S. (2020). ”Celebrated, not tolerated”: How transgender and nonbinary individuals navigate the social world (Publication No. 27999909) [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Texas at El Paso]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
Perez-Brumer, A., Day, J. K., Russell, S. T., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2017). Prevalence and correlates of suicidal ideation among transgender youth in California: Findings from a representative, population-based sample of high school students. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(9), 739–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.06.010
Peterson, J. (2016, September 30). ”I’m not a bigot”: Meet the U of T prof who refuses to use genderless pronouns. CBC As It Happens. https://web.archive.org/web/20210506213642/https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-friday-edition-1.3786140/i-m-not-a-bigot-meet-the-u-of-t-prof-who-refuses-to-use-genderless-pronouns-1.3786144%0A
Pitcher, E. N. (2017). ”There’s stuff that comes with being an unexpected guest”: Experiences of trans* academics with microaggressions. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 30(7), 688–703. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2017.1309588
Pozzan, L., & Antón-Méndez, I. (2017). English possessive gender agreement in production and comprehension: Similarities and differences between young monolingual English learners and adult Mandarin-English second language learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 38(4), 985–1017. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716417000017
Prasad, G., & Morris, J. (2020). The P600 for singular ”they”: How the brain reacts when John decides to treat themselves to sushi [Preprint]. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/hwzke
Protection Against Child Medical and Psychological Experimentation Act (NH H.B. 619). (2023). 168th New Hampshire General Court. http://web.archive.org/web/20230322225529/https://gencourt.state.nh.us/bill_Status/billinfo.aspx?id=71
Public Religion Research Institute. (2021). Most Americans support pro-LGBTQ policies, but are more divided over transgender sports and bathroom policies. https://web.archive.org/web/20211001032111/https://www.prri.org/research/most-americans-support-pro-lgbtq-policies-but-are-more-divided-over-transgender-sports-and-bathroom-policies/
Puckett, J. A., Maroney, M. R., Wadsworth, L. P., Mustanski, B., & Newcomb, M. E. (2020). Coping with discrimination: The insidious effects of gender minority stigma on depression and anxiety in transgender individuals. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 76(1), 176–194. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22865
Puckett, J. A., Matsuno, E., Dyar, C., Mustanski, B., & Newcomb, M. E. (2019). Mental health and resilience in transgender individuals: What type of support makes a difference? Journal of Family Psychology, 33(8), 954–964. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000561
Pyykkönen, P., Hyönä, J., & Van Gompel, R. P. G. (2010). Activating gender stereotypes during online spoken language processing: Evidence from visual world eye tracking. Experimental Psychology, 57(2), 126–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000016
R Core Team. (2023). R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 4.2.3). R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.r-project.org/
Radford, A., Kim, J. W., Xu, T., Brockman, G., McLeavey, C., & Sutskever, I. (2022). Robust speech recognition via large-scale weak supervision [Preprint]. ArXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/ARXIV.2212.04356
Rayner, K. (1988). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372–422. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372
Rayner, K., & Juhasz, B. (2006). Reading processes in adults. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 373–378). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00794-X
Reali, C., Esaulova, Y., & Von Stockhausen, L. (2015). Isolating stereotypical gender in a grammatical gender language: Evidence from eye movements. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36(4), 977–1006. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716414000010
Reynolds, D., Garnham, A., & Oakhill, J. (2006). Evidence of immediate activation of gender information from a social role name. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(5), 886–903. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724980543000088
Richards, C., & Barker, M. (2013). Further genders. In Sexuality & gender for mental health professionals: A practical guide. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473957817
Robertson, M. (2021). Breaking, bending, and stretching the rules of singular ”they” [Conference Talk]. 27th Annual Lavender Languages and Linguistics Conference.
Roelofs, A. (1992). A spreading-activation theory of lemma retrieval in speaking. Cognition, 42, 107–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(92)90041-F
Rood, B. A., Reisner, S. L., Surace, F. I., Puckett, J. A., Maroney, M. R., & Pantalone, D. W. (2016). Expecting rejection: Understanding the minority stress experiences of transgender and gender-nonconforming individuals. Transgender Health, 1(1), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2016.0012
Rubin, D. L., Greene, K., & Schneider, D. (1994). Adopting gender-inclusive language reforms: Diachronic and synchronic variation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 13(2), 91–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X94132001
Runner, J. T., Sussman, R. S., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2006). Processing reflexives and pronouns in picture noun phrases. Cognitive Science, 30(2), 193–241. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog0000_58
Saltzburg, S., & Davis, T. S. (2010). Co-authoring gender-queer youth identities: Discursive tellings and retellings. Journal of Ethnic And Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 19(2), 87–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313200903124028
Samar, V. J. (2006). Evoked potentials. In Encyclopedia of language & linguistics (pp. 326–335). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01089-0
Sanford, A. J. (1985). Cognition and cognitive psychology. Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Sanford, A. J., & Filik, R. (2007). ”They” as a gender-unspecified singular pronoun: Eye tracking reveals a processing cost. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(2), 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210600973390
Sanford, A. J., & Garrod, S. C. (1981). Understanding written language: Explorations of comprehension beyond the sentence. Wiley.
Sarrasin, O., Gabriel, U., & Gygax, P. (2012). Sexism and attitudes toward gender-neutral language: The case of English, French, and German. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 71(3), 113–124. https://doi.org/http://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185/a000078
Sato, S., Gygax, P., & Gabriel, U. (2013). Gender inferences: Grammatical features and their impact on the representation of gender in bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 16(4), 792–807. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000739
S.B. 0466/H.B. 1269. (2023). 113th Tennessee General Assembly. http://web.archive.org/web/20230317012106/https://wapp.capitol.tn.gov/apps/BillInfo/Default.aspx?BillNumber=SB0466
S.B. 1001. (2022). 56th Arizona State Legislature. http://web.archive.org/web/20230329062135/https://www.azleg.gov/legtext/56leg/1R/bills/SB1001P.htm
S.B. 1700. (2023). 56th Arizona State Legislature. http://web.archive.org/web/20230313195640/https://www.azleg.gov/legtext/56leg/1R/bills/SB1700P.htm
S.B. 2231. (2023). 68th North Dakota Legislative Assembly. http://web.archive.org/web/20230319235209/https://www.ndlegis.gov/assembly/68-2023/regular/bill-index/bi2231.html
S.B. 2260. (2023). 68th North Dakota Legislative Assembly. http://web.archive.org/web/20230129022109/https://www.ndlegis.gov/assembly/68-2023/regular/bill-index/bi2260.html
S.B. 30. (2022). 59th Oklahoma Legislature. http://web.archive.org/web/20230331001715/http://www.oklegislature.gov/BillInfo.aspx?Bill=sb30&Session=2300
S.B. 354. (2023). 123rd Indiana General Assembly. http://web.archive.org/web/20230311015856/https://iga.in.gov/legislative/2023/bills/senate/354
Schiller, N. O., & Caramazza, A. (2003). Grammatical feature selection in noun phrase production: Evidence from German and Dutch. Journal of Memory and Language, 48(1), 169–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-596X(02)00508-9
Schmitt, B. M., Lamers, M., & Munte, T. F. (2002). Electrophysiological estimates of biological and syntactic gender violation during pronoun processing. Cognitive Brain Research, 14(3), 333–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00136-2
Schmitt, B. M., Meyer, A. S., & Levelt, W. J. M. (1999). Lexical access in the production of pronouns. Cognition, 69(3), 313–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00073-0
School Establishment Clause Act (OK S.B. 937). (2023). 59th Oklahoma Legislature. http://web.archive.org/web/20230129014816/http://www.oklegislature.gov/BillInfo.aspx?Bill=SB937
Schriefers, H., Jescheniak, J. D., & Hantsch, A. (2002). Determiner selection in noun phrase production. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28(5), 941–950. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.28.5.941
Sedivy, J. C., Tanenhaus, M. K., Chambers, C. G., & Carlson, G. N. (1999). Achieving incremental semantic interpretation through context representation. Cognition, 71(2), 109–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(99)00025-6
Shakespeare, W. (1623). A comedy of errors.
Shenkar, E., Mansoor, N., Ahn, J. S., Owen-Oliner, L., Chen, P., & Grodner, D. (2023). Investigating the processing of singular ”they” using a web-based maze task [Conference Talk]. 36th Annual Conference on Human Sentence Processing.
Shields, J. P., Cohen, R., Glassman, J. R., Whitaker, K., Franks, H., & Bertolini, I. (2013). Estimating population size and demographic characteristics of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth in middle school. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(2), 248–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.016
Siewierska, A. (2013). Gender distinctions in independent personal pronouns. In M. S. Dryer & M. Haspelmath (Eds.), The world atlas of language structures online. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. https://web.archive.org/web/20230309235830/https://wals.info/chapter/44
Sims, J. (Author)., & Newall, A. (Producer/Director). (2019). Scrutiny (No. 142) [Audio podcast episode]. In The Magnus archives. Rusty Quill. https://play.acast.com/s/themagnusarchives/mag142-scrutiny
Sims, J. (Author)., & Newall, A. (Producer/Director). (2020). Strung out (No. 172) [Audio podcast episode]. In The Magnus archives. Rusty Quill. https://play.acast.com/s/themagnusarchives/mag172-strungout
Slobin, D. I. (1996). From ”thought and language” to ”thinking for speaking”. In J. J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 70–96). Cambridge University Press.
Snow, B. (Author)., & Shippen, L. (Producer/Director). (2021). Infernum septimana (No. 7.05) [Audio podcast episode]. In The college tapes. Atypical Artists. https://www.thebrightsessions.com/episode-705
Song, H., & Fisher, C. (2005). Who’s ”she”? Discourse prominence influences preschoolers comprehension of pronouns. Journal of Memory and Language, 52(1), 29–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2004.06.012
Spearman, C. (1904). The proof and measurement of association between two things. The American Journal of Psychology, 15(1), 72–101. https://doi.org/10.2307/1412159
Speyer, L. G., & Schleef, E. (2019). Processing ”gender-neutral” pronouns: A self-paced reading study of learners of English. Applied Linguistics, 40(5), 793–815. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amy022
Spivey, M. J., Tanenhaus, M. K., Eberhard, K. M., & Sedivy, J. C. (2002). Eye movements and spoken language comprehension: Effects of visual context on syntactic ambiguity resolution. Cognitive Psychology, 45(4), 447–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00503-0
Staub, A. (2021). How reliable are individual differences in eye movements in reading? Journal of Memory and Language, 116, 104190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2020.104190
Stauffer, R. (2021, June). The one-size-fits-all narrative of your 20s needs to change. The Atlantic. https://web.archive.org/web/20210621153724/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/06/your-20s-dont-have-to-be-the-best-time-of-your-life/619187/
Sterzing, P. R., Ratliff, G. A., Gartner, R. E., McGeough, B. L., & Johnson, K. C. (2017). Social ecological correlates of polyvictimization among a national sample of transgender, genderqueer, and cisgender sexual minority adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 67, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.02.017
Streed Jr., C. G., McCarthy, E. P., & Haas, J. S. (2017). Association between gender minority status and self-reported physical and mental health in the United States. JAMA Internal Medicine, 177(8), 2015–2017. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.1460
Sturt, P. (2003). The time-course of the application of binding constraints in reference resolution. Journal of Memory and Language, 48(3), 542–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-596X(02)00536-3
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.68.2.199
Swim, J. K., Mallett, R., & Stangor, C. (2004). Understanding subtle sexism: Detection and use of sexist language. Sex Roles, 51(3/4), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000037757.73192.06
Tanenhaus, M. K., Magnuson, J. S., Dahan, D., & Chambers, C. G. (2000). Eye movements and lexical access in spoken-language comprehension: Evaluating a linking hypothesis between fixations and linguistic processing. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 29(6), 557–580. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026464108329
Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey-Knowlton, M. J., Eberhard, K. M., & Sedivy, J. C. (1995). Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension. Science, 268(5217), 1632–1634. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7777863
Tebbe, E. A., & Moradi, B. (2016). Suicide risk in trans populations: An application of minority stress theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(5), 520–533. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000152
Tebbe, E. N., & Moradi, B. (2012). Anti-transgender prejudice: A structural equation model of associated constructs. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(2), 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026990
Testa, R. J., Habarth, J., Peta, J., Balsam, K., & Bockting, W. (2015). Development of the gender minority stress and resilience measure. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(1), 65–77. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000081
The Trevor Project. (2020). 2020 National survey on LGBTQ youth mental health. https://web.archive.org/web/20210104100949/https://www.thetrevorproject.org/survey-2020/
The Trevor Project. (2022). 2022 National survey on LGBTQ youth mental health. https://web.archive.org/web/20230505165356/https://www.thetrevorproject.org/survey-2022/
Towers, A. (2021, July 2). Demi Lovato thanks Lizzo for correcting paparazzo who misgendered her: ”I love you”. Entertainment Weekly. https://web.archive.org/web/20210702144731/https://ew.com/music/demi-lovato-thanks-lizzo-correcting-paparazzo-who-misgendered-her/
Truszczynski, N., Singh, A. A., & Hansen, N. (2020). The discrimination experiences and coping responses of non-binary and trans people. Journal of Homosexuality, 69(4), 741–755. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2020.1855028
Twenge, J. M. (2023, May 1). How Gen Z changed its views on gender. Time. https://web.archive.org/web/20230501110039/https://time.com/6275663/generation-z-gender-identity/
UK Government Equalities Office. (2018). National LGBT survey. https://web.archive.org/web/20210915151037/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-lgbt-survey-summary-report
Valentine, S. E., & Shipherd, J. C. (2018). A systematic review of social stress and mental health among transgender and gender non-conforming people in the United States. Clinical Psychology Review, 66(2017), 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.03.003
Veale, J. F., Peter, T., Travers, R., & Saewyc, E. M. (2017). Enacted stigma, mental health, and protective factors among transgender youth in Canada. Transgender Health, 2(1), 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2017.0031
Veale, J. F., Watson, R. J., Peter, T., & Saewyc, E. M. (2017). Mental health disparities among Canadian transgender youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 60(1), 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.09.014
Voeten, C. C. (2023). buildmer: Stepwise elimination and term reordering for mixed-effects regression (Version 2.8). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=buildmer
von Restorff, H. (1933). Uber die wirkung von bereichsbildungen im spurenfeld [On the effect of field formations in the trace field]. Psychologische Forschung, 18, 299–342.
Walker, M. A. (2002). Toward a model of the interaction of centering with global discourse structure. Verbum, 1, 31–58.
Wallace, W. P. (1965). Review of the historical, empirical, and theoretical status of the von Restorff phenomenon. Psychological Bulletin, 63(6), 410–424. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022001
Wang, M., & Schiller, N. O. (2019). A review on grammatical gender agreement in speech production. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2754. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02754
Waxman, S. R. (2010). Names will never hurt me? Naming and the development of racial and gender categories in preschool-aged children. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(4), 593–610. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.732
Weinhardt, L. S., Xie, H., Wesp, L. M., Murray, J. R., Apchemengish, I., Kioko, D., Weinhardt, C. B., & Cook-Daniels, L. (2019). The role of family, friend, and significant other support in well-being among transgender and non-binary youth. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 15(4), 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2018.1522606
White Hughto, J. M., Reisner, S. L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2015). Transgender stigma and health: A critical review of stigma determinants, mechanisms, and interventions. Social Science & Medicine, 145, 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.010
White, R. G. (1880). Everyday English. Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
Wilson, B. D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2021). Nonbinary LGBTQ adults in the United States. UCLA School of Law. https://web.archive.org/web/20210623183643/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/nonbinary-lgbtq-adults-us/
Zehr, J., & Schwartz, F. (2018). PennController for internet-based experiments (IBEX). https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/MD832
Zimman, L. (2017). Transgender language reform: Some challenges and strategies for promoting trans-affirming, gender-inclusive language. Journal of Language and Discrimination, 1, 84–105. https://doi.org/10.1558/jld.33139


B.1 R Packages

Built using Quarto version 1.3.450 and the R packages:

Package Version
base 4.3.1
brms 2.20.3
broom.mixed 0.2.9.4
buildmer 2.10.1
flextable 0.9.3
ggcorrplot 0.1.4.1
ggdist 3.3.0
ggh4x 0.2.6
ggsignif 0.6.4
ggtext 0.1.2
Hmisc 5.1.1
insight 0.19.5
kableExtra 1.3.4
lme4 1.1.34
lmerTest 3.1.3
patchwork 1.1.3
png 0.1.8
quarto 1.2
RColorBrewer 1.1.3
rmarkdown 2.24
rstatix 0.7.2
scales 1.2.1
simr 1.0.7
sjmisc 2.8.9
sjPlot 2.8.15
snow 0.4.4
tidyverse 2.0.0